News Show Wizard From Adsense Publisher

Do you run a site that relates to people or topics often covered in the media? Or are you looking for additional ways to engage your users? If so, we'd like to introduce you to our recently released Google News–based element for webmasters and developers. This element will allow you to easily integrate headlines and previews from Google News into any page to supplement your content and help make it more dynamic. Whether your site's visitors are interested in business, entertainment or fashion, you control the types of stories in your personal news show. You can input keywords like "Obama" or broad topics like "world news" or "politics".

Adding this element to your site or blog is easy using our NewsShow wizard. You can select the size of the frame, the topics, and the number of articles you want to show, and we'll build the code for you. Or, for more customization, take a look at our documentation.

For more information, see our post on the AJAX Search API Blog. To get started now, head straight to our wizard to cut and paste your own NewsShow.

Extending AdSense for domains to all publishers

Many publishers have approached us looking for a way to monetize their domains, and today, we're excited to announce the expansion of AdSense for domains. This product allows publishers to earn revenue through ads placed on undeveloped domains.


With AdSense for domains, users can find relevant information rather than see empty pages or "page not found" errors. Today we present ads, links, and search results on the pages, and may add other useful information in the future. To ensure positive user experience and the quality of our network, these sites are monitored for policy compliance and prohibited from using text and images designed to confuse users.


Advertisers also have additional opportunities to find their customers, and ads on these pages convert well. In addition, we regularly receive requests from advertisers who have found domains to be an effective way to reach their users.



The product will be initially rolled out in phases to English-language AdSense publishers located in North America, and we'll expand to additional regions and languages in the future. To check whether AdSense for domains has been enabled for your account, log in and visit your AdSense Setup tab. For more information, please visit our Help Center.

Turkeys, thanks, and taxes

This Thanksgiving weekend, we'd like to take a moment to ask our U.S.-based publishers to spend a little post-turkey time (when you're not watching football or taking advantage of those Black Friday bargains) to review your AdSense tax information.

Tax season is just around the corner and we want to make sure that we give the IRS the most accurate information. So please pay a quick visit to your AdSense account, and double-check your payee name -- that's the name that we send payments to --and the tax information you've provided, especially your Social Security or Employer Identification Number.

Does the info in your account correspond exactly to the info in your tax documents? If not, you may want to consider updating your payee name so that everything matches up.You can resubmit your tax information by logging in and following the steps in our Help Center. Keep in mind that we'll be sending out tax forms to publishers who qualify during the month of January.Posted by Elizabeth Ferdon - AdSense Publisher Support

3 Power Principles To Gaining

I’m sure many sales agents, customer service reps, and companies understand that sales production is what keeps a company in business. What they also know is that customer or client satisfaction is just as important. After all, how can you build a great...

Nokia 8600

Key Features - Nokia 8600
Camera: 2 Megapixel Camera, video(QCIF)
Connectivity: Bluetooth™ 2.0, Micro USB, GPRS, HSCSD
Data Storage: 128 Mbytes Memory
Entertainment: FM radio, MP3/AAC/AAC+ player, Soccer 3D Game, 3D Golf Tour Game
Ringtones: Polyphonic (64 channels), MP3


Description - Nokia 8600
This stunning black beauty of Nokia 8600 is a slider made of stainless steel, giving the handset an extremely sophisticated look and feel. The display of Nokia 8600 having a high resolution of 240 x 320 pixels and 16 million colours is much better than even its more expensive counterparts. The music player and the FM radio keep up the entertainment quotient in this handset on a higher side. The 2 megapixel camera that clicks good quality snaps and records videos as well is a photographer’s delight. The internal memory of 128 Mbytes is sufficient enough to store up to 30 of your favourite songs that you can listen to even while on the go. Bluetooth and USB support makes for the connectivity options in the Nokia 8600. It is handset that beautifully blends good looks and advanced features in an extremely enticing package.

Business Classifications

There are many types of businesses, and, as a result, businesses can be classified in many ways. One of the most common focuses on the primary profit-generating activities of a business:

Manufacturers produce products, from raw materials or component parts, which they then sell at a profit. Companies that make physical goods, such as cars or pipes, are considered manufacturers.
Service businesses offer intangible goods or services and typically generate a profit by charging for labor or other services provided to government, other businesses or consumers. Organizations ranging from house decorators to consulting firms to restaurants and even to entertainers are types of service businesses.
Retailers and Distributors act as middle-men in getting goods produced by manufacturers to the intended consumer, generating a profit as a result of providing sales or distribution services. Most consumer-oriented stores and catalogue companies are distributors or retailers. See also: Franchising
Agriculture and mining businesses are concerned with the production of raw material, such as plants or minerals.
Financial businesses include banks and other companies that generate profit through investment and management of capital.
Information businesses generate profits primarily from the resale of intellectual property and include movie studios, publishers and packaged software companies.
Utilities produce public services, such as heat, electricity, or sewage treatment, and are usually government chartered.
Real estate businesses generate profit from the selling, renting, and development of properties, homes, and buildings.
Transportation businesses deliver goods and individuals from location to location, generating a profit on the transportation costs
There are many other divisions and subdivisions of businesses. The authoritative list of business types for North America (although it is widely used around the world[citation needed]) is generally considered to be the North American Industry Classification System, or NAICS. The equivalent European Union list is the NACE.

online job

1) What exactly is Google Adsense?
GoogleAdsense is a medium which helps Advertisers all over the world to promote their Business & Products in the Online Internet Market throughout the world. Today Online Internet Marketing is the toughest Business on Earth. Using Internet Marketing one can reach to any customer in any part of the world. But there is a long ‘Q’ of Advertisers & each wants that there Ad should come first in the Online Market.
The Only way to reach customers is to put Ads in any of the search Engine like Google. Yahoo, Alta-Vista, MSN etc. Today Google is the world’s No.1 search engine. Daily Millions, trillions of Advertisers from all over the world use Google search engine to promote their Business & Products.
So GoogleAdsense are in a contract with Google in promoting the Ad’s of their Advertisers. Read on...


(2) What is the role of Google, GoogleAdsesne and we the customer? How everyone is benefited from it?
As Google is the main search engine for any type of details. Google search engine is filled with millions of Ad’s on every topic. Whenever a visitor search something on Google site millions of search results displays [you can check at http://www.google.com/]. Now the main part is whenever a visitor clicks any Ad & surf it for around 3-5 minutes, the advertiser of that Ad is charged some amount & that amount goes directly in to Google’s Pocket. It means Google’s get payment only when somebody clicks the Ad.


Now Google has given a big opportunity for everyone & anywhere in the world to earn the same amount from the Advertiser. Because now its not possible for Google to display trillions of Ad’s at a time, although each Ad is a bucket full of money. But Google can’t take it unless someone clicks the Ad. So here that money is getting wasted in front of Google’s eye which Google don't want.


So here Google is taking help from us, by displaying these Ad’s on our websites, rest of the game is simple visitor visits your website, where Ads are displayed by Google, when they click on it, Google will get money from those Advertisers. Now this all happened or took place just because of your website, means you are helping Google in Promoting the Ad’s. Google will not make you upset, for every Ad that is clicked on your website Google will pay your commission for that click which ranges from $0.5 to $100 .


GoogleAdsense ROLE: - GoogleAdsense s Google System plays a vital role between you & Google. To get started with Google is not an easy task. One should have the following things: (1) A personal website, (2) Knowledge and Idea to create webpage with html code and JavaScript’s, (3) Credit Card, (4) Foreign Currency Exchange.





In short GoogleAdsense sets the platform for you; just you have to collect money as much as you can. No one will stop you.


(3) Who else can start? Is there any age limit?
Anyone can start with or without basic knowledge of Internet surfing & English. There is no Age limit.


(4) Yes! Wow that’s quite interesting tell me how to get started with GoogleAdsenses Google System?
Good! To get started is very simple, as shown in the GoogleJunction Plan chart:GoogleAdsense offer’s you unlimited Benefits under one roof.


(5) Why should I pay the registration fees?
GoogleJunction takes Non-Refundable Registration Fees for providing you a website + free designing idea of your website for whole life + loading of unlimited interesting articles + daily account maintenance if needed + making your transaction in USD/Indian currency.



(6) What does this no. of pages in website indicate?
Here more the no. of pages in your website more Ad’s will be there and similarly more Ads’ will be clicked & more money will be added in to your account.



(7) What will be the content of my webpages? Who's going to put these details?
We Normally put the best topics on your website which drags more customer. At present on internet thousands of interesting topics are there which attracts people to read. If you want you can put your own topics and contents. Just mail us 10 Topics each with good content.


(8) After getting my website with all Ad’s on it what will be my job?
As soon as you make the registration fees within 1 working days we’ll create your website & Give you the Trainings with full designing & complete Ad’s on it. We’ll create the full money making platform for you. Now you can start making money 24hrs a day. All you have to do is to have as much clicks as you can on your website Ads.


(9) How can I have clicks on my website? Can I click my own Ads?
Simply clicking your own Ad’s will not make any sense. As I said earlier that these Advertiser pay money only when there Ad’s gets a genuine click. So you should give genuine clicks to the Advertiser. We're giving you some exclusive never before software using which you can make self clicking also.


(10) How to get more no. of clicks on my Website?
Dear Friend, the thing is very simple, more clicks will give more money. Now the thing is how to get more no. of clicks every hour without any hard work. After getting registered with us, you'll be getting One Software using which within minutes you can put details of your website on more than 107+ search Engines, & within hours clickings will start on your website, as people from every part of world will visit your website.

Remember you will also get paid the no. of times your webpage is viewed, even if Ads are not clicked.

Apart from that Software, we will also teach you other techniques given in our members area.


(11) What if my Website Ads are clicked than once?
As it has been mentioned that this is a 100% genuine business & you are working for worlds top rated company. Google pays is 100% sure until & unless you go as per their conditions. Google is having very hi-tech technology and server that can easily detect if somebody is cheating Google. Google only wants is a genuine click from your website that's all, if you maintain that than there won’t be any problem in generating 1000’s of rupees daily.


Now what is this Genuine Click: Every one wants to earn more & more, which can be easily done by clicking Ad’s. But here if you only go on clicking your website Ad’s than you won’t be earning that much money. Because what happens when you click any Ad on your website your computers IP Address (for ex. 59.142.102.1) gets registered with Google & you can’t change your computers IP Address, So when you repeatedly clicks Ad’s from the same computer same IP Address will get registered again and again and Google will come to know that here Ads are been clicked purposely to generate money.



But if you want to click your own Ad you can, by using our software (will tell you later), or else you can click Ad from a different Computer. Actually what happens when click is made from a different PC a new IP Address gets registered with Google and instead of NRs.32/- or $ .5 you will get NRs.240/-.or $ 3. Even if any visitor visits your website and don’t do any clicking than also you will get paid, because that Ad has been viewed by someone.


(12) Can I click Ad’s on my website from other computers?
Yes, you can if same Ad is clicked from a different computer it will be counted as a genuine one and you’ll get the money in your account.


(13) What if somebody else visits my website from a different place & clicks the Ad’s?
There is no problem, & it’s very good, the more the Ad’s are clicked on your website by any one & from any part of the world; amount will come to you only. For more details read topic: MULTIPLE EARNING.


(14) Can I ask my friends, relatives, colleagues to visit my website and click Ad?
Yes of course you can as I said earlier more the Ad’s are clicked on your website more will be your earning, let the Ad is clicked by anyone.
You can even earn NRs.16,000/- or $ 213 in a single day.


(15) How much money will I get paid for every Ad clicked on my website?
The amount per click is fixed by the Advertiser. The more the advertiser put money the more their Ad will be displayed. Some Advertiser’s put Ad ranging from NRs.8 to NRs.800+. or $ 10 to $ 10.66.


(16) Do I need Email Id? [ It’s free for members ]
Yes, you need one email Id which you can get free . It is for delivering you with immediate daily result & income details and to avoid Bulk & junk mails from other parties. You can also use that free Email Address for your personal use too.



(17) I liked this business very much, & like to earn more & more. Just give me a brief outline about my monthly income & different ways to get more click?
Dear customer there are unlimited ways to earn money, your monthly income totally depends upon the no. of Ad's clicked / viewed on your website. To make your earning fast and easy we give you a complete package containing step by step instruction along with Google Top Secret Books which tells you every secret of your Web Ads.

We will also give you a list of more than 300 Free Classified Websites where you can put your Website details. Other ways to increase no. of clicks is to advertise your website in newspapers, internet, through emails, web marketing we will teach you every detail.

As your website will be having details of thousands of articles which will attract visitors. You can put a small Ad in newspapers stating that “Free money making details available” or “Join GoogleAdsenses Google System” or “Free Jobs” or etc., as per your wish. By doing this you’ll get thousands of visitors on your site. Now here don’t think that you wont get so many visitors you’ll get, because for ex. if you put Ad in times America, Millions of people read newspaper across America, & when they see your website atleast once they will visit. So just imagine on an average if 1000 people visits your website & from that atleast 800 people clicks that too one Ad each than in a single day your website will have 800 Ad clicks that too all genuine clicks.


Here if you see than you didn't even click a single Ad, no hard work from your side & no internet charges, even if you are on vacation your website will be generating money for you day and night. After putting 3 -4 Ads in news paper your website will be automatically become popular and start moving from one person to other.


Now lets Calculate your earning:
Total Ad clicked 800 x NRs.80/- ( *Average Amount As all Ads will be considered as genuine one because of different IP Address)
Total Amount Generated = 64,000/- (that too in 24hrs.) - NRs.420/- ( Advt. expense depends on newspaper)
Gross Amount Generated = NRs.63520/-
Drawbacks = No Drawbacks all clicks will be considered as Genuine Clicks & 100% no chance of getting your account disabled.
Benefits: Here there will be no hard work from your side, no internet charges, monthly income will be 10 times more . After all, everything is in your hand, we just gave you the techniques on how to generate more money.


(18) How I’m going to get my monthly payment?
Yes ,You Will be paid from the Merchants Monthly/When the Payout Limit reach.

(19) Where can I check my daily amount generated details?
After getting registered with us, we’ll give you a username and password, using it you can check your details + your hourly amount generated in Google Ad's.


(20) What are the other benefits do I get from Adsenses Google System?
Daily Account maintenance, customer support over phone and mail. For full one year you can put article of your choice on the webpage’s allotted to you on your website.



MULTIPLE EARNING OPPORTUNITY:


Apart from what you earn from your daily income. You can’t even imagine that if alone working on your website you are earning NRs.1600/- daily, this NRs.1,600/- can be NRs.16,000/- daily. Thing is very simple this is called Multiple Earning Opportunity, here suppose 100 people are visiting your website daily from different places whether in Nepal or Abroad, and if each of them click at least 10 Ad’s than daily your website will be Generating mind blowing income of 6 to 7 figure. What you have to do is just publicize your website among friends, relatives, colleagues. You can even put Ad in newspaper that free money making ideas are available on your website. And when new people visit your website they will start clicking Ad’s displayed by Google on your Website. Your websites will be clicked from every part of the world. And daily you’ll be surprise of the income you receive. The bottom line of this program run on a simple thing, the more the Ad’s are clicked more will be your income


(21) Will Google Adsense s Google System going to help us in publicizing our website to earn from Multiple Earning Opportunity as mentioned? How?
Yes, GoogleAdsense s Google System will help you, by providing you some Money Making Software’s & E-Books + Google Book + Ad Software [for advertising your website free of cost in more than 107 Top class websites] +List of 300http://mydzo.blogspot.com/2007/12/directory-submission-service.html Free classified Websites where you can put your Ads free of cost.




(22) Is the business a genuine one? Will I am going to get my payment in time?
Yes of course its genuine one, no doubt about it. Here you are working for Google world’s No.1 website for search. .. There won’t be any problem in payment; you’ll get the payment in time. We give 100% surety about it.


The Business is very legal, because it helps everyone in the market. The Advertisers are happy because their Ad’s are being viewed by millions of Viewers across the world. Google gets their money from Advertiser’s for their support & atlast we get our commission from Google for our work. This is not like any network marketing or MLM type work, here you get paid for your hard work.

Classified Profit eBook for eBay

The eBay Classified Profit eBook is one of the newest digital .pdf products that has been thrown our way. It has been out for a couple of weeks and a really big hype was created around it. Although you may feel the need to pass it, as you have been fooled once too many times, let’s see if this product stands out from the crowd.

The author seems to make some pretty bold claims in the seals letter. So what is so different about this product that makes it an absolute buy? Is it really different from the tons of similar eBooks available on ClickBank?

The eBay Classified Profit eBook is different in many ways. Some say it’s revolutionary, but let’s not get ahead of ourselves. The techniques presented in this .pdf are practically the same old stuff we’ve heard about before. The real difference comes when we start talking about the implementation of these techniques. Seemingly, this is the exact thing that makes the difference between failing and wining the online battle.

Yes, implementation of the affiliate marketing techniques is critical. It is what has made the gurus millions of dollars while the majority helplessly watched from the side. In this eBook you will be provided with a set of very efficient and in some cases unorthodox approaches to promoting products, profiting from eBay in away you’ll never think of, borrowing from the top affiliates and the list could go on and on.

So, what are you waiting for? Buying another eBook that tells you to march on full of confidence and determination? A book which will redefine affiliate marketing for you in the same way you’ve already heard 100 times before? Or are you looking for an efficient way to get around the web? If that is the case, then the eBay Classified Profit eBook is the right choice for you.

WIDGETBUCKS MERCH SENSE PAY YOU

WidgetBucks is the heavy lifting by creating contextual ad widgets that your visitors will actually click on and find engaging.

I know that how it performs on my blog.I implemented a skyscraper few days back, and the results, well, it outperformed AdSense who had that spot before.The 25$ sign up bonus adds spice to the whole program.


The Ads had a visitor attracting animation but unfortunately, the loading of this blog got double.I wasn't alone in this problem.Soon they announced fast loading widgets.Though, its better now but still below perfect.Soon, they came up with a new format, 300 x 150 which perfectly flushes in my sidebar.The loading time is now half of what it used to be earlier.The new format is more compact and a visitor magnet and the results say speak of it.



You need minimum of $50 to receive a payment from widgetbucks. As for example you already got $25 from sign up bonus and suppose you have made $6 till date so you will need another $19 to get paid.


The best part of WIDGETBUCKS isReferral program, affiliates can earn a whopping 10 percent referral fee based on the commissions earned by the people they refer. So if a downline member earns $100 in a single month you are entitled to receive $10 commissions. Affiliates receive this 10 percent for the full 12 months after the new member joins. So if a new downline joins in the month of May you will receive the commission till next years April. Payouts made to affiliates are monthly, along with their commission checks.


So There will be many helpful tools accompanying within the WidgetBucks account, including multiple types of of pre-designed ads, text-links and logos.

sign up WIDGETBUCKS AND GET 25$BONUS HAVE ENJOY!

4 Ways You Can Make Money Online With Your Blog Post#

When you blog online, it is really important to be not shy about promoting products on your blog. In the past I used to think that if I pitched too much my viewers wont like it. But the fact is that the blogger also have to make a living from his efforts so once in a while it’s good to have a pitch on your blog but not too much.

Here’s are 4 ways I normally do it on my blog which I found great success with:

1. Direct Pitch Post

This style of writing may offend new readers if they just visited your blog but it does show a point and direct message to tell them to buy something. Although everyone do not like reading a sales pitch post, but if you not pitch to your viewers, your customers will never know directly what you are trying to sell them.

2. In Direct Pitch Post

I love doing this the most because the pitch is so hidden that you will never noticed it’s a pitch link. However I realized although you may have a high click through for the link. But the chances of them closing the browser after they click on the link would also be higher depending what the person offer on the sales page.

Some sales page would offer a free gift which I felt is a good way of generating leads and sales. But there are also some that only hard sell to you. There are pros on and cons to each type of sales copy but you should try a mix of both and test.

3. Review Products Post

A very innocent way to sell a product on your blog would be by reviewing people’s product. However you would not want your WHOLE blog to be about just reviews. You need a good mix of both quality information and reviews. Most blogger made a mistake of just providing information but do not offer any products or recommendations.

4. Put Your Affiliate Links To Keywords of Your Other Post

You can also promote affiliate links using hidden words or parts of your blog post on your blog. I had seen many bloggers do that quite often with great success and proof to convert also pretty well. There are also plug-ins you can buy to replace all words on your blog or some of the keywords to always point to your affiliate links too.


http://www.mydzo.wordpress.com

Mapping the World Wide Web with Bid Web Directories

The Internet does not remain static and mundane. It has to have new offers and progressive updates otherwise the web users will get bored knowing there are no new things to look forward to in the World Wide Web. But the truth lies where steadfast at every clicking of the mouse. New things are always being cooked up in the internet realm, in fact, a new system of websites indexing has become a popular piece of conversation among those who are connected through the internet link and for those who are making great fortune through the endless sources of making money online like webmaster do. This new concept is called bid web directory.

This recent update in the indexing of websites has made internet surfing for leisure and information a lot easier and thus life in the web less tedious in general. The bidding web directory follows one simple rule and that is to list all the websites into categories and the related sub-categories for the sole purpose of making the website search basically easy and simple. Through this new concept, all the websites are linked comprehensively making the World Wide Web closer and broader. This is an ambitious deviation from the typical search engine system the internet has introduced first to enormous web users where the web pages are all displayed and presented according to keywords only. Although this old fashioned way has literally helped the web users with the information search, the bid directory idea will save the web users from delay. The web users will not be hassled with clicking a link and opening the website only to discover that the website does not complete all the needed information.

The categorization of the websites with the bidding directory will introduce the web users with the corresponding webpage description first so that he is aware of what the website offers in a nut shell. Being saved from this simple delay means surfing time at optimum speed and the information gathering is at the right pacing, significantly. Now that is what one will call web navigation at its finest. The web directory generally enhances the surfing time and the surfing quality as well. This optimum search facility, more over is readily accessible in the web directory.

In a time where the Internet has become ultimately accessible to everyone, parents are in great concern about the kind of websites are listed in the web directory knowing how some crap sites can influence their children. That situation is typical with the search engine system where the web sites are jammed up and are indexed just like that. And following the truth that this free, the entrance becomes easier all the more. The discretion as to what will be found in the web directory will just fall into the web users. But with new concept offered by the bid web directory, the websites must pay some rough amount to maintain their ranking in the web lists as a toll for the indexing and the chance to be connected with other featured links. This amount of bid ranking fee means that only the best of the best web sites are included in the directory and that simply means that crap sites and similar bogus links are discriminated away from the web users, our children in particular. After all, crap sites and bogus links webmasters will not pay some rough dough for the bid only to mislead the web users.

Moreover, those who are earning a fortune through the websites and information providers are also in favor of the new concept. The directory will normally display the top ten ranking websites which means these are the ten websites that will most likely receive frequent visits being recommended by the directory through the page rank. Web masters can participate in the arrangement of the web lists ranking. While the directory can start the bid with practically the lowest amount, the webmasters have the option as to how much are they willing to bid for the position. The number one rank goes to the highest bidder and follows the deductive hierarchy. Similar to the typical bidding rules, somebody can outbid your position and rob it away from you. But the good side of the web directory idea is that you can rebid once more and perhaps compensate and regain your post.

Philosophy of business

Philosophy of
business

The philosophy of business considers the fundamental principles that underlie
the formation and operation of a business enterprise; the nature and purpose of
a business, for example, is it primarily property or a social institution; its
role in society; and the moral obligations that pertain to it. The subject is
important to business and management, and is closely related to business ethics
and political economy. It is influenced significantly by philosophy, ethics, and
economic theory.



One must draw an important distinction between the philosophy of business and
business philosophy, which is an appellation that one often hears in the
business world. More often than not, the latter designation is intended to
denote a way of doing business or a business outlook, a popular use of the term
philosophy, instead of its more formal, academic meaning, using the concepts and
methods employed by philosophers. The latter meaning applies to the philosophy
of business in this article. The phrase philosophy of business also might be
used in the same way as business philosophy, for example, "Risk taking
represents my philosophy of business." However, this is not the same sense that
philosophy is used in this article.

Early development
of the philosophy of business

It is a somewhat curious truism that despite the fact that business touches
nearly every aspect of our lives, few thinkers have shown an interest in it from
a more philosophical perspective until relatively recently. Indeed, few
philosophers can be said to have paid much attention to the business enterprise,
itself, prior to the latter part of the 20th century. Many philosophers tended
to look askance at commercial activity, believing, as Plato did, that only the
worst sort of people are involved in such matters. Plato is not unlike many
academics throughout history, even today, who tend to think of business as a
necessary evil in society, and not as something worthy of serious philosophical
consideration. To the extent philosophers were concerned with business, they
were primarily interested in it from an economic or political standpoint, and
not as a primary object of attention.



Although there have been few "philosophers of business", per se, business and
economics has not developed in a vacuum. It is built on many tacit philosophical
principles and assumptions that we can examine. As a general rule, business
practitioners and theorists tend to accept the principles that are current in
their society. In the European middle ages, for example, the dominant Christian
influence resulted in a pricing practice know as just price, and in the
Enlightenment the dominant view of economic decision making was one of
rationality.



The formative years in the development of the modern philosophy of business and
economics was the 17th and 18th century. At that time, thinkers like Hobbes,
Locke, Rousseau, Shaftesbury, and Smith created the intellectual foundation upon
which modern business and capitalism was built. A basic principle subsumed
within business practice and economic theory alike is the notion of free will.
Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau all accepted that we are
free moral agents, able to make decisions, control our own destiny, and engage
in a social contract. This notion would later be celebrated in the idea of the
entrepreneur, someone that freely decides to pursue a risky venture in the hope
of receiving great rewards. It is also at the core of utility theory, a model of
consumer behaviour in economics in which consumers freely choose what to
purchase.



Another philosophic principle that would become part of business theory and
practice is rationality. The general philosophic predilection of the
enlightenment was that people were fundamentally rational. Philosophers such as
René Descartes and Spinoza had built whole systems of thought on this
assumption. Capitalism would do the same. For two hundred years economics was
founded on the assumption of Homo economicus. This assumption has recently been
challenged by Herbert Simon, among others.



Another key philosophic assumption is atomism. It was John Locke's view of
society as an aggregation of independent, autonomous individuals, rather than
Jean-Jacques Rousseau's vision of society as an organic collective that would
become an integral part of business philosophy. The key ethical unit is the
individual. Social institutions are merely constructs that individuals can use
for their own purposes. Many years later, Milton Friedman used this assumption
in arguing that corporations have no moral responsibility because, he contended,
they are not individuals capable of responding to moral claims. Only the
individuals within the business enterprise have a moral responsibility.



Modern business practice and theory developed in the age of scientific
discovery, and this gave it a mechanistic orientation. In particular, Newton had
just discovered classical physics. This would influence business and economics
in ways that we are just beginning to understand. Early writers dealing with
economic topics, such as Adam Smith, borrowed many of their techniques and
terminology from classical physics. They would use terms like "equilibrium", "labour
force", "elasticity", and "income accelerator". Today a few theorists are
starting to question the mechanistic approach and model business on biological
principles or chaos theory. Newton's law of inertia has found its way into
marketing where it is claimed that consumers will continue in their current
state unless they are encouraged to act otherwise. Thus advertising is claimed
to perform the valuable role of helping people experience a more variegated and
interesting life.



John Locke also contributed an important attitude towards the private ownership
of property. He claimed that individuals have certain inalienable, natural
rights. One of these is the right of ownership. He said that if we toil on the
land and mix our sweat with the soil, we become the rightful owners of the land.
This argument was extended to other assets including the factors of production,
a conclusion that many, including Karl Marx, would challenge.



Another key concept that underlies modern business is psychological egoism. This
states that the core moral obligation is to oneself. Thomas Hobbes saw all
action as motivated out of self-interest. A group of philosophers including
Mandeville, Butler, Shaftsebury, Hutcheson, and Smith (sometimes referred to as
the "enlightened self-interest school") developed this into one of the core
concepts of modern business theory. Bernard Mandeville claimed that private
vices are actually public benefits. In The Fable of the Bees (1714) he laments
that the "bees of social virtue are buzzing in mans bonnet". Civilized man has
stigmatized his private appetites and the result is the retardation of the
common good. Bishop Butler claimed that pursuing the public good was the best
way of advancing one's own good since the two were necessarily identical. Lord
Shaftesbury turned the convergence of public and private good around, claiming
that acting in accordance with ones self interest will produce socially
beneficial results. An underlying unifying force that Shaftesbury called the
"Will of Nature" maintains equilibrium, congruency, and harmony. This force, if
it is to operate freely, requires the individual pursuit of rational
self-interest, and the preservation and advancement of the self. Francis
Hutcheson also accepted this convergence between public and private interest,
but he attributed the mechanism, not to rational self interest, but to personal
intuition which he called a "moral sense". Adam Smith developed a version of
this general principle in which six psychological motives combine in each
individual to produce the common good. He called it the invisible hand. In The
Theory of Moral Sentiments, vol II, page 316, he says: By acting according to
the dictates of our moral faculties, we necessarily pursue the most effective
means for promoting the happiness of mankind. Since Smith's time, the principle
of the invisible hand has been further incorporated into economic theory. Leon
Walras developed a four equation general equilibrium model which concludes that
individual self interest operating in a competitive market place produce the
unique conditions under which a society's total utility is maximized. Vilfredo
Pareto used an edgeworth box contact line to illustrate a similar social
optimality.



A link can also be made between utilitarianism and the fundamental principles of
the philosophy of business, however this is more theoretical that practical.
Economists use utility theory to model human actions. Like Jeremy Bentham,
modern economists assume that people are hedonists, that is they prefer more
satisfaction to less satisfaction. The amount of satisfaction can be expressed
in terms of the utility a person derives from the satisfaction. Social welfare
functions used in modern welfare economics are an outgrowth of John Stuart
Mill's utilitarian calculation of obtaining the greatest good for the greatest
number. The grounding of business principles on teleological ethics has been
challenged by many deontological philosophers. John Rawls' maxmin criterion also
provides an alternative.





Modern philosophers
of business

It is fair to say that most modern philosophers of business are involved in
other philosophical or scholarly pursuits, and that they come to the philosophy
of business as a sub-specialty, or only indirectly because it relates to another
area of interest. Thus, they are primarily philosophers dealing with other
subjects, economists, or business management theorists. If one were to examine
the philosophy departments in most universities, today, one would find precious
few courses in the philosophy of business (as opposed to a growing number of
business ethics or applied ethics courses). There are indications that a growing
number of philosophers with formal training in academic philosophy will come to
specialize in the philosophy of business.



Perhaps the best known modern philosopher of business is Peter Drucker, whose
publications have had a profound influence on management and organizational
theory, generally, and on how we think of the business enterprise. More often
than not, people who think about business issues are considering it from an
applied perspective, which is to say, what is the best or most effective means
of transacting commerce or managing the enterprise, with some goal in mind,
usually profitability, improving employee relations, or marketing. While Drucker
has dealt with these issues and many more in numerous publications over his long
life, he also inquires into the principles and concepts that underlie commercial
activity and organizational structure, and he asks what ought the mission of a
business to be, and, in particular, how can we reconcile a business mission with
conflicting interests in the marketplace and society.



One of the most frequently discussed topics is the matter of organizational
change in a complex environment. Paul R. Lawrence has dealt primarily with
organizational change, organization design, and the relationship between the
structural characteristics of complex organizations and the technical, market
and other conditions of their immediate environment. His 1967 book, Organization
and Environment (written with Professor Jay Lorsch), added contingency theory to
the vocabulary of students of organizational behavior.



Other philosophers of business, for example, Geoffrey Klempner, are principally
interested in examining how business is even possible, which is to say, how can
an enterprise function in society as a whole. Klempner states that theories of
ethics and business are often at odds, and that one might even have to suspend
the normal ethical considerations that would apply outside of business in order
for a business to be possible. This is reminiscent of Albert Z. Carr's famous
and controversial Harvard Business Review article on bluffing, where he said
business was similar to playing poker, and that deception is a necessary part of
business.



Of course, there is a close relationship between the philosophy of business and
business ethics. Philosophers specializing in business ethics are primarily
interested in how business people ought to conduct themselves in the marketplace
and in society. Philosopher Norman E. Bowie adopts Kant's three versions of the
categorical imperative for ensuring ethical business conduct, and he pays
particular attention to the third variation, whereby the people within a
business must be seen as a kingdom of ends, and not merely treated as means to
an end.



The "invisible hand" is a favorite metaphor for practitioners of modern-day
Western capitalism, the ideology driving globalization and, for the most part,
business as we know it today. What many of the bottom-line fundamentalists may
ignore is the degree to which the so-called "free market" has been skewed and
maneuvered in ways Adam Smith never envisioned. Thus the question of ethics and
conscience runs deeper yet. With exponential increases in government laws,
regulations and court decisions regarding business in the past century, ethical
practice has morphed from doing "the right thing" as conscience would dictate to
doing what complies with the law or isn't explicityly illegal. Thus there's been
a gradual relaxation of internal moral compass and greater reliance on external
parameters, as in "if it isn't illegal, it must be all right," as well as a new
skillset in finding "legal loopholes" in stretching the boundaries of
compliance.

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